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-Review-
RNA in human sperm
Rui Pires Martins1, Stephen A.
Krawetz1,2,3
1Center for Molecular Medicine and
Genetics, 2Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology,
3Institute for Scientific Computing, Wayne State University School of Medicine, 275 E. Hancock, Detroit, MI 48201, USA
Abstract
We have yet to develop a fundamental understanding of the molecular complexities of human spermatozoa. This
encompasses the unique packaging and structure of the sperm genome along with their paternally derived RNAs in
preparation for their delivery to the egg. The diversity of these transcripts is vast, including several anti-sense
molecules resembling known regulatory micro-RNAs. The field is still grasping with its delivery to the oocyte at
fertilization and possible significance. It remains tempting to analogize them to maternally-derived transcripts active in early
embryo patterning. Irrespective of their role in the embryo, their use as a means to assess male factor infertility is
promising. (Asian J Androl 2005 Jun; 7: 115-120)
Keywords: RNA; siRNA; miRNA; sperm; microarray; fertilization; diagnostics
Correspondence to: Stephen A. Krawetz, Ph.D., Charlotte B. Failing Professor of Fetal Therapy and Diagnosis, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Center for Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Institute for Scientific Computing; Center of Excellence: Paternal Impact of Toxicological Exposure, Wayne State University School of Medicine, 275 E. Hancock, Detroit, MI 48201, USA.
Tel: +313-577-6770, Fax: +313-577-8554
E-mail: steve@compbio.med.wayne.edu
Received 2005-01-17 Accepted 2005-04-11
DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-7262.2005.00048.x
1 Introduction
Mature spermatozoa serve as a repository for
information regarding both genetic and environmental
influences. They seed some of the many forms of male
factor infertility. Within the past few decades, there has
been a decline in human male fertility [1-4]. The direct
causes of this reduction remain enigmatic and controversial,
but some work suggests that increased environmental and
systemic exposure to pesticides, herbicides, estrogenic
compounds, heavy metals and reactive oxygen species
[5-7] may play a causative role. Concurrent with and
perhaps contributory to the decrease in male fertility, there
has been a corresponding increase in the incidence of
testicular cancer and cryptorchidism [8, 9]. The medical
costs associated with treating the rising number of
infertile men and men with a fertility-affecting pathology is
mounting. These theories remain speculative because
little is known about the genetic and molecular basis of
infertility.
Of the genes reported to correlate with male factor
infertility, most have been identified via non-systematic,
or limited surveys; the focus has been on specific genes
that were of interest to an individual investigator rather
than a genome-wide approach [10]. For example, single
nucleotide polymorphisms in one of the genes involved
in repackaging the male haploid genome,
prm2 [11] were found in infertile males; one of which leads to a
truncated protein. Decreased levels of the estrogen receptor
[12] in spermatozoan nuclear matrices was also found to
occur in ideopathically infertile men. Studies using
animal models have pointed to a number of factors that when
deficient or inappropriately expressed, lead to infertility
[13-18]. Using a more comprehensive approach, recent
systematic analyses of the human Y chromosome have
identified a number of candidate genes for male factor
infertility. For example, deletions identified in the
non-recombining region of the Y chromosome lead to
spermatogenic failure [19, 20]. Other testis-specific defects
have been demonstrated in men with deletions of the Y
chromosome encompassing one or more genes [21]. Some
of the genes in this region have since been determined to
not have any clinical relevance with regard to infertility
[22], while other factors demonstrate a clear relationship
to an infertile phenotype. It is reasonable to assume that
the majority of idiopathic male factor infertilities are
likely multifactorial disorders [23-26]. As shown by the
recent transcriptional profiling of the CREM knock out
mouse model [27] this is reflected by substantial changes
in the presence or absence of various multiple members
of the affected pathways. Determining exactly how all
of these genes are involved, however, remains necessary.
2 RNA in sperm
It has long been held that the tightly packaged
chromatin within mature spermatozoa is transcriptionally
inert [28]. Despite this, RNA was observed in the mature
sperm nucleus of Scolopendrium [29] and in rodents and
other species [28_33]. In situ hybridization from normal
fertile human ejaculate localized both beta-actin and
prm2 mRNAs to the head region [34], suggesting that this RNA
was a unique sperm head component. Spermatozoa
transcript complexity was first addressed by analyzing a
series of randomly selected cDNA clones [35]. Sequence
comparison showed that 11 of the hybridizing cDNAs
were unique within the expressed sequence tag (ESTs)
and non-redundant databases whereas five showed no
similarity to any of the sequences in the database.
Additionally, one was a member of the SINE, i.e., short
interspersed repetitive element family, e.g. Alu and
another contained a CAn repetitive element comprised of a
repeating string of CA nucleotides. Together these
studies independently confirmed that spermatozoa contain a
wealth of both known and unknown protein-encoding and non-coding RNAs. The presence of this suite of
RNAs is intriguing when we consider that mature sperm
have little if any cytoplasm [36]. These methods of
characterization proved a rather laborious means to profile
the set of transcripts present in the mature spermatozoa.
Since then, other large-scale strategies have been
employed.
3 Molecular characterization of sperm transcripts
Characterizing the transcript complexity of the
spermatozoan has been refined by the use of microarrays.
For example, using mRNA from both testes and ejaculate spermatozoa, a suite of cloned EST microarrays were
probed [37, 38]. Stringent precautions were employed to
avoid somatic cell contamination. This included two
sequential centrifugations through a 40:80 discontinuous
gradient of percoll followed by treatment with Triton-X
100 plus sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) to remove even
a hint of residual somatic cells. cDNA probes from the
pooled poly(A+) RNA fraction and the single total RNA
fraction were then hybridized to a series of six microarrays
containing 27 016 unique ESTs. All transcripts isolated
from human sperm were present in testes, but all testes
transcripts were not present in sperm. The pooled testes
probe hybridized to 26 % of the ESTs whereas the pooled
poly(A+) RNA fertile spermatozoa probe identified 12 %
of the ESTs. The total RNA spermatozoal probe from the
single fertile male ejaculate hybridized to 10 % of the
ESTs. The spermatozoal sequences comprised a discrete
subset of those identified with the testes probe. As
expected the population of RNAs represented by the
poly(A+) RNA fraction was similar to that of the total RNA
fraction.
To assess variance, different preparations of sperm
RNA from different individuals have been compared.
Representative results are summarized in Figure 1.
Spermatozoal RNAs were isolated and array specific labeled
probes were constructed. Each probe was then
individually hybridized to an array spotted with 1.176 unique
ESTs, shown in panel A. Panels B and C demonstrate a
greater than 90 % concordance, between individuals, of
both positively hybridized ESTs (+ve: 132 of ~170 ESTs),
as well as with those ESTs that failed to hybridize (-ve:
938 or about ~1015 ESTs). This supports the notion that
a core set of invariant fertile transcripts will be identified.
Figure 1. Spermatozoal transcript profiles from normal fertile men. (A): Representative pseudo color images of hybridizations of labeled cDNAs derived from ejaculated spermatozoal RNAs from two separate individuals. The Clontech, human Tox 1.2 filters, containing 1,176 unique ESTs were used. (B): Shared transcripts between the two individuals are indicated at the intersection. (C): These represent a concordance of about 90? between individuals, both in regards to total positive (132 out of approximately 170 ESTs) and total negative (938 out of about 1015 ESTs) hybridizations.
Subsequent data analysis from these and other studies has revealed that hydrolases, many of which are found
in the acrosome and DNA binding proteins, associated
with the extensive restructuring of the nucleus during
spermiogenesis [39] are among the largest
protein-encoding groups identified. In comparison, when queried
by cellular component, the largest protein-encoding
groups were the plasma membrane, nucleus and cytoplasm. A series of spermatozoal transcripts have been
identified that are concordant with mRNAs known to
participate in fertilization and embryonic development.
A comparison of this suite of sperm RNAs with those
present in human and mouse oocyte cDNA libraries
revealed that several sperm derived transcripts essential
for early development were not present in the oocyte.
These encode a series of proteins associated with
fertilization (i.e., SP-40, sulfated glycoprotein 2, calmegin and
several heat shock response products) that are important
for embryo development [40]. Their presence in human
testes and sperm and their absence in the unfertilized egg
as assessed by RT-PCR and the delivery of some of these
RNAs from the sperm to the egg upon fertilization has
been confirmed [41]. This has led to the obvious yet
unanswered question, do spermatozoal RNAs, encode unique function(s) in the developing zygote and/or
embryo (Figure 2A)? Perhaps they help sustain viability of
the embryonic genome?
Figure 2. The nature of paternal RNAs: the possibilities envisioned. (A): Spermatozoa deliver not only their genomic contribution to the embryo, but also many RNA transcripts; some of which are not present among the stored maternal RNAs. Among these are transcripts thought to be involved in early development, as well as anti-sense micro-RNAs that may play a role in early pre-translational regulation in the embryo. (B): The majority of male factor infertility is idiopathic, as sperm otherwise appear normal. RNA isolated from ejaculate spermatozoa from these men could be used to clinically assess putative genetic or environmental disturbances. This will not only shed light on key genetic processes that are integral to spermatogenic differentiation, but also provide avenues for therapy.
Of the ribonucleic species delivered to the oocyte at
fertilization, a large proportion of them are of low
molecular weight and are shown to be in the anti-sense
orientation (Figure 2A) [42]. A total of 68 different siRNAs
have been identified in human spermatozoa (http://compbio.med.wayne.edu/Sperm_RNAi.htm) of which 13
show significant similarity with those previously
implicated in RNA-mediated regulation [42]. Could these
function in a manner similar to small interference RNAs
(siRNAs) like lin-4 and
let-7? These are well known as regulators of development and differentiation in
Caenorhabditis elegans regulating the timing of larval
development [43, 44] and the transition from late larval
to adult stages [45, 46], respectively. The small sperm
RNA transcripts show a wide tissue distribution
including a number of early embryonic tissues. Several of the
transcripts are implicated in embryonic development
including DKK2, TIA and fat-3. For example,
dickkopf2 (DKK2) is known to inhibit the WNT signaling pathway
[47-50] regulating cell fate and pattern generation dur
ing embryogenesis whereas, fat-3, is perhaps a key player
in the differentiation of mesoderm, somites and neurons
in mammals [51], as well as growth and neuronal
signaling in C. elegans [52].
With such a large number and diversity of transcripts
found in mature spermatozoa, it is tempting to draw
comparisons with maternal RNAs, stored in the oocyte. The
importance of these in the early patterning and
development in Drosophila [53] and
Xenopus [54, 55] embryos is well documented. In mammals, their importance was
first only inferred [56] and later confirmed through the
discovery of specific genes and by experiments
examining the onset of zygotic transcription [57, 58]. As sperm
have been shown to deliver RNA to the oocyte, the
presence of antisense RNAs within this pool could provide a
means to regulate early parental-based gene activity, by
selectively targeting maternally or paternally derived
RNAs for degradation. Furthermore, with siRNAs being
known to persist through several cell divisions, it is
possible that these transcripts could help regulate early
genetic activity through to the multi-cell embryo.
4 Sperm RNA as a clinical tool
The application of microarray technology to
spermatozoal RNA isolated from ejaculate presents a unique
opportunity to globally address the mechanisms that
control the differentiation of the male gamete during normal,
perturbed and diseased states (Figure 2B). They provide
a useful molecular record to assess environmental insult
and/or genetic status since spermatogenesis is highly
sensitive to environmental exposures including chemical,
thermal and biological agents [59]. Recently two
independent studies have used RNA profiling techniques to
address the relationship of motility and the RNA
population between normal and motility impaired sperm [60,
61]. Interestingly several transcripts were identified that
varied in a significant manner between the normal and
motility impaired samples. These included testis specific
protein 1 and lactate dehydrogenase C transcript variant
1 [61]. This clearly points to the potential of this strategy
to be used as a clinical assay to provide a panoramic view
of testis gene expression [37] that can be difficult to
achieve from a testicular biopsy. Defining the "fertile
male fingerprint" would have a significant impact on
diagnosis, treatment and counseling. Realization would
signal a major advance in the field of andrology.
Acknowledgment
The authors gratefully acknowledge the Michigan
Economic Development Corporation and the Michigan Technology Tri-corridor for the support of this research
program (Grant 085P4001419). The authors would like
to thank the laboratory personnel and many
collaborators who have contributed to this work.
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