This web only provides the extract of this article. If you want to read the figures and tables, please reference the PDF full text on Blackwell Synergy. Thank you.
- Original Article -
Interactions among age, adiposity, bodyweight, lifestyle
factors and sex steroid hormones in healthy Singaporean Chinese men
Victor H. H. Goh1,2, Terry Y. Y.
Tong1, Helen P. P. Mok1, Baharudin Said1
1Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, National University of Singapore, National University Hospital, Kent Ridge,
119074, Singapore
2Core Lab, General Clinical Research Center, LA BioMed at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center and Department of Medicine,
Division of Endocrinology, David Geffen School of Medicine, 1124W Carson Street, Torrance, CA 90502, USA
Abstract
Aim: To examine the inter-relationships among age, lifestyle factors, anthropometric parameters, percent body fat
and steroid hormone parameters in 531 healthy Singaporean Chinese men aged between 29 and 72 years
old. Methods: Various lifestyle parameters were quantified through a survey, and testosterone (T), estradiol (E2),
dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate (DHEAS) and sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) were measured using established methods.
Anthropometric parameters were collected and computed, and percent body fat (Siri) was measured using the DEXA
scanner. Results: SHBG, DHEAS, bioavailable-T (Bio-T), E2, Siri, Ht, W/H, W/Ht and work stress were
independently correlated with age. Using multivariate analyses and adjusting for age and other related factors, exercise,
smoking and alcohol consumption have positive impacts on androgen levels and body composition. However, black
and green tea consumption was associated with negative effects on body composition and with higher levels of E2
and Free Estradiol Index (FEI). Men with shorter sleep duration had significantly lower T levels as compared to those
with 6 h or more of nightly sleep. Higher T levels were associated with lower levels of adiposity and other indices of
adiposity, whereas higher E2 levels were related to higher levels of adiposity. Men with higher DHEAS were
significantly taller and heavier than those with low DHEAS levels.
Conclusion: The study showed the close interactions
among the gonadal/adrenal and metabolic compartments, with age being a key determinant in their interactions.
Lifestyle factors such as exercise, smoking, sleeping and alcohol and tea consumption might play significantly roles in
determining the status of health in men. (Asian J Androl 2007 Sep; 9: 611_621)
Keywords: age; testosterone; sex hormone binding globulin; estradiol; dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate; bioavailable-testosterone; body
fat; exercise; smoking; alcohol; tea; coffee; stress; sleep
Correspondence to: Prof. Victor H. H. Goh, Core Lab, General Clinical Research Center, LA BioMed at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center and
Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, David Geffen School of Medicine, 1124W Carson Street, Torrance, CA 90502, USA.
Tel: +1-310-2221-855 Fax: +1-310-5330-627
E-mail: vgoh@labiomed.org
Received 2007-04-30 Accepted 2007-06-15
DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-7262.2007.00322.x
1 Introduction
It is well established that aging in men is associated
with decreased androgen and increased sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) production, resulting in a
significant decline in free and bioavailable testosterone
(Bio-T). This decline in androgen levels has been associated
with a variety of pathological conditions, and has been
termed late-onset hypogonadism (LOH) [1, 2]. However,
the biochemical and pathophysiological characteristics
of LOH remain ill-defined. In the hope of bringing some
uniformity to the understanding of this condition in aging
men, the International Society for the Study of Aging
Men (ISSAM) has provided guidelines for the diagnosis
and treatment of LOH [3].
Central in LOH is androgen deficiency in adult men.
Although the physiological functions of T and its
metabolites are well known, the physiological roles, if any,
of estrogens in men are unclear. Studies have attributed
some possible roles of estrogens in sexual, behavioral,
bone, cardiovascular and other metabolic functions in
men [4, 5]. As with estrogens, the role of
dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) in men is unclear. Several studies
have reported positive effects of DHEA on bone
metabolism and body composition [6], but its effect on
cognition remains controversial [7].
Apart from physiological parameters, many lifestyle
factors influence the secretion of androgens in men
[8_12]. Most studies of the relationships between serum
sex steroid hormone levels and lifestyle factors have been
carried out on white populations, with relatively few
having been carried out among Asian populations.
From an ongoing study of the determinants of the
aging process in Singaporean Chinese over the last 8 years,
it was noted that age is a major determinant on the
functionality of most health compartments. This impact of
age on the various compartments occurs in an integrated
manner. Therefore, the present study sought to
examine the inter-relationships among age, lifestyle factors,
bodyweight (Wt), adiposity and steroid hormone parameters, including T, estradiol (E2),
dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate (DHEAS) and SHBG,
bioavailable-T (BioT) and Free Estradiol Index (FEI) levels in a
cohort of healthy Singaporean Chinese men. An
understanding of how these factors are integrated in their
effects on the various physiological compartments can
assist in the formulation of a holistic modality for the
management of aging men.
2 Materials and methods
2.1 Subjects
Institutional approval for the study was obtained and
each volunteer gave his written informed consent.
Ethnic differences exist and, therefore, only 531 Singaporean
Chinese men aged between 29 and 72 years were
included in this analysis. Subjects were recruited from the
general public through an open invitation, first through
an announcement during the World Congress in Sexology held in Singapore. The announcement was included
in the major newspapers in Singapore. Continual
recruitment was assisted through word of mouth from
volunteer to volunteer. The targeted number of men between
the ages of 30 to 70 years was 400. As the primary
objective was to evaluate the determinants of the aging
process, subjects who have or have had, and were treated
for major illnesses were excluded from the study. Only
subjects with no known existing or history of major
medical illnesses, such as cancer, hypertension, thyroid
dysfunction, diabetes, osteoporotic fracture and
cardiovascular events, were included in the present study.
Subjects were not paid for participation. They represent
the diverse spectrum of the population in Singapore, and
include those with low and high levels of education,
working and non-working men (retirees), and men with
various vocations (Table 1). These profiles are typical
of Singapore, which is a highly urbanized city state with
no rural population.
Each subject answered a questionnaire with questions
regarding medical and dietary history, social circumstances,
sex, family history of dyslipidemia and other relevant
history regarding consumption of hormones, supplements
and medication, types of beverages, cigarettes and alcohol.
2.2 Anthropometric measurements
Wt was measured without shoes using an electronic
measuring scale, and height (Ht) was taken to the
nearest centimeter. The body mass index (BMI) was
calculated as bodyweight in kilograms divided by height in meter
squared. Waist circumference (W) was measured
midway between the lower costal margin and iliac crest
during the end-expiratory phase [13]. Hip circumference
(H) was measured in centimeters. In addition, the
waist/hip (W/H) and waist/height (W/Ht) ratios were computed
as indices of body fat. The comparative usefulness of
these anthropometric measures as indices for body fat is
reported in an earlier study [14].
2.3 Body composition
Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) was used
for the estimation of the percent body fat, a technique
that correlates well with other methods, including
hydrodensitometry and Jackson and Pollock (7-site)
skinfold prediction [15]. Each subject underwent a
whole body scan using DEXA (DPX-L, Lunar Radiation,
Madison, WI, USA; software version 1.3z). Percent
body fat was computed automatically by the DEXA
scanner using Siri formula-calculation (Siri) [16].
2.4 Aerobic and impact exercise scores
From the survey, the type, duration and frequency
of exercise for each individual were used to derive the
total impact exercise (ImpSc) and total aerobic exercise
(AeroSc) scores. Each exercise type was given both an
aerobic and impact score from a scale of 0 to 3, with 3
being the maximum score. Aerobic exercises are those
that raise the heart rate above normal, whereas impact
exercises are those that involve weight-bearing,
including that of bodyweight or additional external weight, such
as in weight lifting. Only an exercise of at least 20 min
duration each time was given a score and the total score
reflected the amount of exercise in a week. For example,
jogging for at least 20 min was given a score of 3 for
aerobic and 3 for impact. If an individual jogged five
times a week, his total aerobic score would be 3 × 5 = 15
and impact score 3 × 5 = 15. In contrast,
lap-swimming for 30 min, five times a week was given a total
aerobic score of 3 × 5 = 15, but an impact score of
0 × 5 = 0. Therefore, the total impact score (ImpSc)
and aerobic score (AeroSc) for each individual per week
is 21. The range of exercises and their scores are
depicted in the Table 2.
2.5 Surveys for work stress and sleep duration
In the general questionnaire, subjects were asked to
rate their perception of the work stress and duration of
sleep each night and other lifestyle factors. See Table 3
for the source of scores.
2.6 Hormonal assays for total T, E2 and DHEAS
Serum T and E2 concentrations were measured using reagents and method recommended by the World
Health Organization Matched Reagent Program [17] with
modification to the scintillation proximity methods
established in-house [18]. However, DHEAS and SHBG were
measured by established radioimmunoassay methods
reported earlier [19]. The intra- and inter-assay
coefficients of variation were less than 10% over the effective
concentration ranges for T and DHEAS and less than 15%
for E2 and SHBG.
2.7 Method of calculation of BioT
BioT was calculated using the computer formula of
Vermeulen, which is available on the ISSAM website
(www.issam.ch). Total T was computed as ng/dL, whereas
that for SHBG as nmol/L. Albumin level was assumed to be
44. Hence, BioT was expressed as ng/dL [20].
2.8 Method of calculation of FEI
SHBG is an important factor in defining estrogen
action. Because a method for direct measurement of
free estradiol levels using equilibrium dialyses is not well
established, the calculated FEI was used as an index of
estrogen action to take into consideration changes to E2
and SHBG levels. Based on the formula established for
the calculation of free androgen index (FAI) [21], FEI is
calculated as follows:
FEI = {E2 (nmol/L)/SHBG (nmol/L)} × 1 000.
2.9 Statistical analysis
Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS for
Windows version 15 (SPSS Inc., IL, USA). Basic descriptive statistics, linear regression, Spearman and
Pearson bivariate correlation and multivariate analyses
were used where appropriate.
3 Results
Using Pearson's and Spearman's correlation, age was
the single most important determinant of many of the
biological and lifestyle factors studied. It was
significantly (P < 0.05) correlated with SHBG, E2, W/H,
W/Ht, W, ImpSc, AeroSc, and number of cups of green tea per
day, with r-values ranging from 0.094 to 0.292. Age
was significantly (P < 0.05) and negatively correlated
with Bio-T, DHEAS, FEI, H, Wt, Ht, work stress and
sleep duration, with r-values ranging from _0.090
to _0.369.
Adjusting for BMI, multivariate analyses showed that
only DHEAS, SHBG, BioT and E2 were independently correlated with age (Table 4). Among the
anthropometric and lifestyle factors only Ht, W/H, W/Ht and Siri fat
were independently related with age (Table 4).
To evaluate the interactions among steroid hormone
parameters, lifestyle factors and indices for bodyweight
and adiposity, multivariate analyses with adjustments for
age and BMI and other related variables were carried
out. Both steroid hormone parameters and indices for
bodyweight and adiposity were collectively input as
dependent factors in these analyses. Fixed factors in the
analyses included sleep duration groups (SlpD-Gps),
work stress groups (WkStress-Gps), T groups (T-Gps),
BioT groups (BioT-Gps), E2 groups (E2-Gps), SHBG groups (SHBG-Gps), aerobic exercise (Aero-Gps) and
impact exercise groups (Imp-Gps), alcohol, coffee, tea
and green tea consumption, and smoking groups.
Both steroid hormone parameters and indices of bodyweight and adiposity were affected by some of the
lifestyle factors studied. Serum T levels were
significantly lower, by approximately 28%, in men with shorter
duration (< 4 h) of nightly sleep when compared to those
with at least 6 h of sleep (Table 5). This observed
difference cannot be accounted for by other demographic
factors as there were no significant differences in age,
working status, educational and income levels between
the two groups.
Impact and aerobic exercise had similar effects on
various parameters, except that aerobic exercise
significantly affected T levels, whereas impact exercise affected
FEI levels in men (Table 6). High intensity of both
impact and aerobic exercises (exercising for at least four
times a week and a total score of > 12;
Gp3 significantly lowered the percent body fat (Siri) and W/H ratio (Table 6).
Those with high ImpSc (> 12) had significantly higher
SHBG levels, which resulted in significant decreases in
FEI (Table 6). However, moderate to high aerobic
exercises (Gp2 and Gp3) resulted in higher T levels when
compared to those with no or low intensity of exercise
(Table 6).
Among the cohort of Singaporean Chinese men studied,
only 8.7% smoke with a daily average of 13 cigarettes.
Among the men studied, 62.5%, 31.6% and 12.1%, respectively, drink coffee, black tea and green tea daily.
Among those who drink coffee, black or green tea, more
than 70% drink 1_2 cups per day. Only 34.1% of the
Singaporean Chinese men consume alcohol. Among these
men, the majority either drink wine and/or beer. More
than 80% drink wine or beer on a daily basis. However,
approximately 15% consume hard liquor, with this
normally occurring during birthday or wedding celebrations.
Because exercises significantly impact steroid
hormone and anthropometric parameters, the effects of
smoking, alcohol, coffee, black and green tea
consumption were evaluated with exercise scores as covariates.
Whereas coffee consumption was not associated with
any change in steroid hormone parameters or indices for
bodyweight and adiposity, smoking, black or green tea
and alcohol consumption were associated with
significant changes (Table 7). Interestingly, men who smoked
had significantly higher levels of T and Bio-T levels, while
at the same time had reduced levels of adiposity (Siri fat)
when compared with men who did not smoke (Table 7).
Similarly, alcohol consumption was associated with
increased Bio-T and decreased Siri (Table 7). Green tea
consumption was associated with significantly higher
bodyweight, BMI and hip circumference (H), whereas
men who consumed black tea had significantly higher
levels of E2 and FEI when compared to those who did
not consume tea (Table 7).
Being stressed at work is a common problem among
the Singaporean work force. The drive to be successful
in a very competitive urban society like Singapore is very
high, especially among the ethnic Chinese. More than
65% of those in this cohort of Singaporean Chinese men
who were working had from moderate to high levels of
work stress (Groups 2 and 3). Table 8 shows that the
higher the level of work stress, the higher the degree of
adiposity, as reflected in the higher waist circumference
(W) and W/H and W/Ht ratio.
Tables 9_12 reflect changes in anthropometric
parameters and adiposity based on T-Gps, SHBG-Gps,
E2-Gps and DHEAS-Gps. The groupings were based on
mean + standard deviation (SD), with Gp1 having levels
in the first quartile (< [mean _ SD]), and Gp3 in the fourth
quartile (> [mean + SD]). The results showed that T
and SHBG had independent and similar effects on
indices of bodyweight and adiposity. Low T levels were
associated with significantly higher BMI, W, H, W/Ht
and Siri fat (Table 9). Low SHBG levels had similar
effects as low T levels except that low SHBG levels were
not associated with any significant changes in Siri
(Table 10). High E2 levels had the opposite effects of
high T and SHBG levels. Men with higher E2 levels
were associated with higher degrees of adiposity, as
indicated by higher W/H ratio (Table 11). Higher levels of
DHEAS were significantly associated with taller (Ht) and
heavier (Wt) men (Table 12).
4 Discussion
Age and some lifestyle factors are associated with
changes in steroid hormone levels and a wide range of
clinical problems, and may detrimentally affect wellness
in life [8_12, 22]. Although the effects of T and E2 on
sexual function and some other health indicators have
been well established, relatively few studies have been
carried out to define the role of DHEA in sexual and health
functions. A recent report from the Massachusetts Male
Aging Study (MMAS), however, found a relationship between DHEA and several diseases, including coronary
heart disease, and sexual dysfunction, and general physical
and mental wellbeing [23].
In agreement with several previous studies, levels of
DHEA and BioT in Singaporean Chinese men declined significantly, whereas those for SHBG and E2 increased
significantly with age [1, 9, 11, 12, 23]. Increase in
adiposity with age was reflected by significant increases
in W/H, W/Ht and Siri. Interestingly, height in
Singaporean Chinese men showed an age-associated decline
and might be related to significant decrease in total bone
mineral content (Goh et al., unreported data).
Significantly more men in the younger age group have higher
levels of work stress than men in the older age groups.
This could be a reflection of the highly competitive
society in highly urbanized Singapore and is congruent with
our earlier finding that Singaporeans are highly stressed
to the extent that had affected their sexual functions [24].
Different steroid hormone levels were related to
changes in anthropometric parameters and Siri studied.
As shown in many studies [23, 24], men with low
testosterone levels (< 3.30 ng/mL) have significantly higher
bodyweight (8.3%) and BMI (8.7%) when compared with men with higher T (> 7.10 ng/mL). At the same
time, the levels of adiposity were comparatively higher
as reflected by an 18.8% increase in Siri, and increases
ranging from 2.9% to 6.9% of W, H, W/H and W/Ht. As
SHBG and T levels were significantly correlated, lower
levels of SHBG had similar effects on bodyweight and
the levels of adiposity in men when compared to those
with higher levels of SHBG.
E2 showed the opposite effect of adiposity from T.
Men with high E2 levels had significantly higher adiposity,
as reflected by higher W/H.
Among the steroid hormones studied, only DHEAS was associated with changes in Ht and Wt. Men with
higher DHEAS were significantly taller and heavier.
Because DHEAS decreased significantly with age, the
decrease in weight and height might be related to decreases
in DHEAS.
The results showed close interactions between the
gonadal/adrenal axes and the metabolic compartments.
They showed the opposing effects of T and E2 on bodyweight and adiposity and the apparent direct
correlation of bodyweight and height to DHEAS. These
results give further support to the suggestion that men with
LOH are associated with obesity [25].
Among Singaporean Chinese men, smoking and alcohol consumption accounted for 8.7% and 34.2%,
respectively. In addition, the rate of smoking was
approximately 13 cigarettes per day, while most of those
who consume alcohol drink beer and wine, with an
average of 1 to 2 glasses a day. Men who smoked had
significantly higher T and Bio-T, by approximately 14%,
when compared to non-smokers. At the same time, the
percent body fat (Siri) was 2.3% lower than in
non-smokers. These findings were similar to those in earlier
studies [1, 11, 12] and in contrast to another study [9].
The reason for the conflicting results might be related to
the intensity of smoking noted in different study populations. Because these data were adjusted, the
differences noted cannot be accounted for by age alone.
However, the exact mechanism of these apparent beneficial effects of smoking and alcohol consumption on
androgen levels and adiposity is not known and warrants
further in-depth studies in the near future.
Although drinking coffee did not, drinking black or
green tea caused significant changes in some of the
steroid hormonal and anthropometric parameters.
Drinking black tea led to significant increases in E2 and FEI
levels, whereas drinking green tea resulted in increases
in bodyweight, BMI and hip circumferences. Higher
levels of E2 levels are associated with higher levels of
adiposity. Therefore, drinking either black or green tea
appears to increase the risk of obesity in Chinese men.
This was an unexpected finding and it would be
intriguing to evaluate the mechanism through which black and
green tea can cause such an increase.
Both impact and aerobic exercises affect some
steroid hormonal and anthropometric parameters in Chinese
men. When compared to men without or with low
intensity (Gp1), men performing higher intensity aerobic
exercises (Gp3) had higher T (13.8%) and SHBG
(15.4%) levels. Higher levels of T were associated with
beneficial reduction of the level of adiposity, as reflected in
decreases in Siri and W/H of 11.9% and 3.8%, respectively.
Likewise, high intensity of impact exercises had raised
SHBG levels (by 17.6%) to such an extent that had caused
significant reduction of FEI (by 20.5%). Reduction in
FEI is beneficial and had, in turn, probably caused a
significant reduction in the level of adiposity. As with
increased T levels, men performing high intensity impact
exercises (Gp3) had 19.0% and 2.1% lower Siri and
W/H, respectively, when compared to those who did little or
no exercise. Our observations were in agreement with
other studies [4, 7, 23], and in contrast to others [1, 12].
Clearly, exercise and steroid hormone levels are
inter-related with each other and in their effects on bodyweight
and the degree of adiposity. Therefore, it is possible that
the exercise-induced changes in bodyweight and
adiposity might occur because of changes in T, SHBG and E2
levels. The results in the present study confirm the
beneficial effects of exercises in reducing the degree of
adiposity and obesity among the population. On average,
Singaporean Chinese men, in their highly urbanized
setting, do not exercise enough. Only approximately 10%
of men had total exercise scores of > 12, an intensity of
exercise that resulted in the observed beneficial effects.
In addition, those in the younger age groups of < 45 years
in particular, do not exercise enough. In the Singaporean
context, this is because of their preoccupation with
establishing their careers and raising young families. More
creative campaigns to get these men to participate in
regular exercise are needed to mitigate the ill effects of a
sedentary lifestyle among men in Singapore, and to
combat the rising trend of obesity in Singapore.
Although BMI has been established as an index of
bodyweight, it is frequently used as an index of adiposity.
As was shown from results of an earlier study [14], BMI,
H, W, W/H and W/Ht are highly correlated with each
other and with percent body fat (Siri). However, there
are limitations of these anthropometric parameters as
indices of adiposity [14]. BMI is more appropriately viewed
as a weight rather than an adiposity index [14]. The
fundamental difference of Siri as an index of adiposity as
opposed to BMI as a bodyweight index was demonstrated
in the effects of steroid hormones on these two indices.
T had greater impact on adiposity than on bodyweight.
When comparing Siri and BMI in high T versus low T
groups, men with low T had significantly higher Siri (by
13.6%); correspondingly, BMI was higher by only 4.7%.
Higher levels of SHBG, which is produced by the liver,
were associated with lower BMI but not Siri.
Amount of sleep has often been neglected in
studying the impact of lifestyle factors on sex steroid
hormones levels. Older men tend to sleep less than younger
men, as demonstrated in the present study. After
adjusting for age, men who slept for less than 4 h nightly had
significantly lower T levels, by 28.2% when compared
to those who slept for > 6 h nightly. Those who slept
for between 4 h and 6h had reduced T, by approximately
9%. This is an important lifestyle parameter and should
be targeted for lifestyle modification to improve the health
status of the population. Increased work demands
disrupt sleep. This, in turn, might have long term damaging
effects on health. Education regarding the importance
of adequate sleep is another key strategy for helping the
population to age healthily and, thereby, reduce the risk
of illness.
Results from the present study showed the close
interactions between the gonadal/adrenal and the metabolic
compartments. Promotion of regular and sufficiently
intense exercise and sufficient sleep are key lifestyle
modifications that can help to improve the health of the
population. Some observations warrant further research.
Of particular interest is the observation that smoking and
alcohol consumption positively affect androgen levels and
body composition, whereas black and green tea consumption negatively impact body composition.
Acknowledgment
We would like to thank all staff at the Endocrine
Service and Research Laboratory for their expert assistance.
This study was partially supported by a grant from the
National University of Singapore under the Academic
Research Fund. This study would not be possible if not
for all the volunteers who participated in the present
study.
References
1 Mohr BA, Guay AT, O'Donnell AB, McKinlay JB. Normal,
bound and nonbound testosterone levels in normally ageing
men: results from the Massachusetts Male Aging Study. Clin
Endocrinol (Oxf) 2005; 62: 64_73.
2 Travison TG, Araujo AB, O'Donnell AB, Kupelian V,
McKinlay JB. A population-level decline in serum
testosterone levels in American men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006;
92: 196_202.
3 Nieschlag E, Swerdloff R, Behre HM, Gooren LJ, Kaufman
JM, Legros JJ, et al. Investigation, treatment and monitoring
of late-onset hypogonadism in males. Aging Male 2005; 8:
56_8.
4 Bagatell CJ, Heiman JR, Rivier JE, Bremner WJ. Effects of
endogenous testosterone and estradiol on sexual behavior in
normal young men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1994; 78: 711_6.
5 Carani C, Rochira V, Faustinin-Fustini M, Balestreiri A,
Granata AR. Role of oestrogen in male sexual behaviour:
insights from the natural model of aromatase deficiency. Clin
Endocrinol 1999; 51: 517_24.
6 Villareal DT, Holloszy JO, Kohrt WM. Effects of DHEA
replacement on bone mineral density and body composition in
elderly women and men. Clin Endocrinol 2000; 53: 561_8.
7 Grimley Evans J, Malouf R, Huppert F, van Niekerk JK.
Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) supplementation for
cognitive function in healthy elderly people. Cochrane Database
Syst Rev 2006; 4: CD006221.
8 Mantzoros CS, Georgiadis EI. Body mass and physical
activity is important predictors of serum androgen concentrations
in young healthy men. Epidemiology 1995; 6: 432_5.
9 Tamimi R, Mucci LA, Spanos E, Lagiou A, Benetou V,
Trichopoulos D. Testosterone and oestradiol in relation to
tobacco smoking, body mass index, energy consumption and
nutrient intake among adult men. Eur J Cancer Prev 2001; 10:
275_80.
10 Wong SY, Chan DC, Hong A, Woo J. Prevalence of and risk
factors for androgen deficiency in middle-aged men in Hong
Kong. Metabolism 2006; 55: 1488_94.
11 Allen NE, Appleby PN, Davey GK, Key TJ. Lifestyle and
nutritional determinants of bioavailable androgens and related
hormones in British men. Cancer Causes Control 2002; 13:
353_63.
12 Ponholzer A, Plas E, Schatzl G, Stuhal G, Brössner C, Mock
K, et al. Relationship between testosterone serum levels and
lifestyle in aging men. Aging Male 2005; 8: 190_3.
13 World Health Organization Expert Committee. Physical Status:
The Use and Interpretation of Anthropometry; Technical
Report Series No. 854. Geneva: World Health Organization,
1995, p427_38.
14 Goh VH, Tain CF, Tong TY, Mok HP, Wong MT. Are BMI
and other anthropometric measures appropriate as indices for
obesity? A study in an Asian population. J Lipid Res 2004;
45: 1892_8.
15 Kohrt WM. Preliminary evidence that DEXA provides an
accurate assessment of body composition. J Appl Physiol
1998; 84: 372_7.
16 Siri WE. Body composition from fluid spaces and density:
analysis of methods. Nutrition 1993; 9: 480_91.
17 Sufi S, Donalson A, Jeffcoate SL. Method Manual. WHO
Special Programme of Research, Development and Research
Training in Human Reproduction. Programme for the
provision of matched assay reagents for the radioimmunoassay of
hormones in reproductive physiology. Geneva: World Health
Organization. 1992.
18 Goh HH, Chow A, Wang FL, Ratnam SS. Comparisons of a
tritium labeled-based classical radioimmunoassay with a newly
developed scintillation proximity assay for measurement of
plasma oestradiol-17-beta. J Med Lab Sc 1990; 4: 33_5.
19 Chia SE, Goh VH, Ong CN. Endocrine profiles of male
workers with exposure to trichloroethylene. Am J Ind Med 1997;
32: 217_22.
20 Vermeulen A, Verdonck L, Kaufman JM. A critical evaluation
of simple methods for the estimation of free testosterone in
serum. J Clin Endocr Metab 1999; 84: 3666_72.
21 Wilke TJ, Utley DJ. Total testosterone, free-androgen index,
calculated free testosterone, and free testosterone by analog
RIA compared in hirsute women and in otherwise-normal
women with altered binding of sex-hormone-binding globulin.
Clin Chem 1987; 33: 1372_5.
22 Ventegodt S. Sex and the quality of life in Denmark. Arch Sex
Behav 1998; 27: 295_307.
23 Gray A, Feldman HA, McKinlay JB, Longcope C. Age, disease,
and changing sex hormone levels in middle-aged men: results of
the Massachusetts Male Aging Study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab
1991; 173: 1016_25.
24 Goh VH, Tain CF, Tong TY, Mok PP, Ng SC. Sex and aging in
the city: Singapore. Aging Male 2004; 7: 219_26.
25 Muller M, den Tonkelaar I, Thijssen JH, Grobbee DE, van der
Schouw YT. Endogenous sex hormones in men aged 40_80
years. Eur J Endocrinol 2003; 149: 583_9.
|